The Mediating Role of Student Attitude in Socratic Mathematics Instruction and Achievement: Evidence from 9493 Learners in Vietnam and Cambodia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.63385/ipt.v2i2.349Keywords:
Socratic Math Instruction, Student Math Attitude, PISA, Student Math PerformanceAbstract
Large disparities in mathematics achievement persist across Southeast Asia, raising questions about how instructional practices interact with students’ attitudes to shape learning outcomes in contrasting educational systems. Using data from 9493 fifteen-year-old students in Vietnam and Cambodia drawn from Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022, this study examines the relationships among Socratic mathematics instruction (SMI), student mathematics attitude (SMA), and student mathematics performance (SMP). Structural equation modeling was employed to compare a high-performing system (Vietnam) with a lower-performing one (Cambodia) and to assess the mediating role of student attitudes in translating instructional practices into achievement. Across both countries, SMI was positively associated with SMA (Vietnam: β = 0.43; Cambodia: β = 0.39; p < 0.001), and SMA was positively related to SMP, with a markedly stronger association in Cambodia (β = 0.28) than in Vietnam (β = 0.07; p < 0.001). The direct association between SMI and performance was positive in Vietnam (β = 0.08, p < 0.001) but small and negative in Cambodia (β = −0.01, p = 0.004). Mediation analysis revealed that the indirect effect of SMI on performance through SMA was substantially larger in Cambodia (β = 0.11) than in Vietnam (β = 0.03; p < 0.001), indicating that student attitudes play a compensatory role in contexts with limited instructional capacity. These findings highlight SMA as a key mechanism through which SMI affects achievement and show that instructional effectiveness is context dependent. By integrating pedagogical, affective, and contextual factors, the study extends Expectancy-Value Theory and emphasizes aligning instructional reforms with students’ motivational and attitudinal profiles, especially in resource-constrained settings.
References
[1] Cvencek, D., Brečić, R., Gaćeša, D., et al., 2021. Development of Math Attitudes and Math Self‐Concepts: Gender Differences, Implicit–Explicit Dissociations, and Relations to Math Achievement. Child Development. 92(5), e940–e956. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13523
[2] Quintero, M., Hasty, L., Li, T., et al., 2022. A multidimensional examination of math anxiety and engagement on math achievement. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 92(3), 955–973.
[3] Liu, Y., Ma, S., Chen, Y., 2024. The impacts of learning motivation, emotional engagement and psychological capital on academic performance in a blended learning university course. Frontiers in Psychology. 15, 1357936.
[4] Liu, J., Abdul, A., Aziku, M., et al., 2024. Can inquiry-based pedagogy improve math performance? Evidence from 5711 students in Vietnam on the mediating role of math attitude. International Journal of Educational Development. 111, 103170.
[5] Taylor, P., 2023. Balancing the Equation: Using Socratic Dialogue to Increase Student Engagement and Achievement in a Middle School Mathematics Classroom. Florida Journal of Educational Research. 60(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.62798/XWKB4533
[6] Morejón, A.O., Esnaola, H.Z., Garabieta, M.S., et al., 2025. Dialogic Pedagogical Gatherings to Foster Pre-service Teachers Self-Efficacy in Addressing School Violence. REMIE: Multidisciplinary Journal of Educational Research. 15(1), 22–42.
[7] Berg, L., 2024. Motivating Math Students through Socratic Pedagogy [Master's Thesis]. University of Montana: Missoula, MT, USA. Available from: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/12397/
[8] Day, C.T., 2020. Expectancy Value Theory as a Tool to Explore Teacher Beliefs and Motivations in Elementary Mathematics Instruction. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education. 13(2), 169–182.
[9] Ungar, M.A., 2021. Expectancy-Value Theory during Challenging Moments: A Narrative Inquiry into Classroom Dialogic Discussions. Saint John’s University: New York, NY, USA.
[10] Wigfield, A., Eccles, J.S., 2000. Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 25, 68–81.
[11] Tran, T.T.M., 2024. Vietnam’s Comprehensive Educational Reform: Reflections after A Decade of Implementation (2013–2024). Conhecimento & Diversidade. 16(44), 511–537.
[12] Heng, K., Sol, K., 2022. Education: Key to making Cambodia great again. Cambodia Development Center. 4(3), 1–18.
[13] Andriyati, N., Amin, A., Li, Y., 2025. Exploring Multiliteracies Competencies in Indonesian Teacher Education: A Cross-Disciplinary Survey of Pre-Service Teachers. Frontiers in Education; Frontiers. 10. 1710081.
[14] Dwianty, R., Khoiruddin, K.F.R., Ashafatun, S., 2024. The Impact of Inquiry-Based Learning on Mathematics Achievement in Secondary Education. International Journal of Mathematics and Science Education. 1(1), 69–74.
[15] Hwang, S., Son, T., 2021. Students’ Attitude toward Mathematics and Its Relationship with Mathematics Achievement. Journal of Education and e-Learning Research. 8(3), 272–280.
[16] Luzano, J.F., 2025. Culturally-responsive mathematics teaching strategies in the contemporary academic tapestry: A scoping review. International Journal on Studies in Education. 7(2), 373–387.
[17] Boaler, J., 2016. Mathematical Mindsets: Unleashing Students’ Potential through Creative Mathematics, Inspiring Messages and Innovative Teaching. John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA.
[18] Wigfield, A., Eccles, J.S., 2024. The relevance of situated expectancy-value theory to understanding motivation and emotion in different contexts. In: Hagenauer, G., Lazarides, R., Järvenoja, H. (Eds.). Motivation and Emotion in Learning and Teaching across Educational Contexts: Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives and Empirical Insights. Routledge: London, UK. pp. 3–18.
[19] Wohl, A., 2021. The Effectiveness of Socratic Teaching as an Intervention in the Instruction of High School Geometry for Students with Emotional Behavioral Disorders [Master's Thesis]. St. Cloud State University: St. Cloud, MN, USA. Available from: https://repository.stcloudstate.edu/sped_etds/115/
[20] Schoenherr, J., Schukajlow, S., Pekrun, R., 2025. Emotions in mathematics learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ZDM Mathematics Education. 57, 603–620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-025-01651-w
[21] Pham, T.T.H., Renshaw, P., 2015. Adapting evidence-based pedagogy to local cultural contexts: A design research study of policy borrowing in Vietnam. Pedagogies: An International Journal. 10(3), 256–274.
[22] Tynjälä, P., Gijbels, D., 2012. Changing World: Changing Pedagogy. In: Tynjälä, P., Stenström, M.-L., Saarnivaara, M. (Eds.). Transitions and Transformations in Learning and Education. Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp. 205–222.
[23] Hennessy, S., Rojas‑Drummond, S., Higham, R., et al., 2022. Developing dialogic teaching: The role of professional development and instructional coaching. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction. 33, 100627.
[24] Potts, R., 2025. Elementary School Teachers’ Perceptions of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics [PhD Thesis]. Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine: Philadelphia, PA, USA. Available from: https://digitalcommons.pcom.edu/psychology_dissertations/673/
[25] Olubo, S., 2020. Effects of Socratic and Demonstration Methods of Teaching on Students’ Academic Performance in Financial Accounting in Secondary Schools in Kogi State, Nigeria [Master’s Thesis]. Kwara State University: Safari, Nigeria.
[26] Hashim, S., Masek, A., Mahthir, B.N.S.M., et al., 2021. Association of interest, attitude and learning habit in mathematics learning towards enhancing students’ achievement. Indonesian Journal of Science and Technology. 6(1), 113–122.
[27] Takahashi, A., 2021. Teaching Mathematics through Problem-Solving: A Pedagogical Approach from Japan. Routledge: New York, NY, USA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003015475
[28] Liu, R., Zhen, R., Ding, Y., et al., 2022. Longitudinal relations between math self‑concept, math anxiety, and math achievement in early adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology. 114(4), 713–728.
[29] Wang, Q., Xue, M., 2022. The implications of expectancy-value theory of motivation in language education. Frontiers in Psychology. 13, 992372.
[30] Nagle, C., 2021. Using Expectancy Value Theory to understand motivation, persistence, and achievement in university‐level foreign language learning. Foreign Language Annals. 54(4), 1238–1256.
[31] Chowdhury, R., 2016. Inquiry based learning as an instructional strategy to increase student achievement in math and science. In: Simonson, M. (Ed.). 2013 Annual Proceedings—Anaheim: Volumes 2: Selected Papers on the Practice of Educational Communications and Technology. Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT): Bloomington, IN, USA. pp. 177–188.
[32] Wilson, H.E., 2021. Motivation and achievement in gifted and advanced learners. In: Miller, E.M., Matthews, M.S., Dixson, D.D. (Eds.). The Development of the High Ability Child: Psychological Perspectives on Giftedness. Routledge: London, UK. pp. 114–129.
[33] Rudhumbu, N., du Plessis, E., 2021. Utilizing the expectancy value theory to predict lecturer motivation to apply culturally responsive pedagogies in universities in Botswana. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. 20(7), 192–209.
[34] Harman, G., Hayden, M., Nghi, P.T., 2024. Higher Education in Vietnam: Reform, Challenges and Priorities. In: Harman, G., Hayden, M., Nghi, P.T. (Eds.). Reforming Higher Education in Vietnam. Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp. 1–13.
[35] Ryu, J.H., Nguyen, A.T., 2021. Internationalization of higher education in Vietnam: Current situations, policies, and challenges. International Journal of Comparative Education and Development. 23(3), 227–241.
[36] Em, S., Khan, S., Nun, N., 2023. Education system in Cambodia: A brief review from the prehistoric period to the present, and an education strategic plan for the future. FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education. 7(3), 141–164.
[37] Bredenberg, K., 2022. Progress with Reforming Secondary Education in Cambodia. In: McNamara, V., Hayden, M. (Eds.). Education in Cambodia. Springer Nature Singapore: Singapore. pp. 55–80.
[38] Hallinger, P., Bryant, D.A., 2021. Reviewing the knowledge base on educational leadership and management in East Asia: A systematic review. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. 49(3), 414–435.
[39] Liou, P., Myoung, E., 2023. Teacher‐perceived science inquiry‐based instructional practice on student achievement and motivational beliefs in classroom contexts. Science Education. 107(6), 1485–1506.
[40] Kim, T., 2006. Impact of Inquiry-Based Teaching on Student Mathematics Achievement and Attitude [PhD Thesis]. University of Cincinnati: Cincinnati, OH, USA. Available from: https://search.proquest.com/openview/cce56a33cb401c155054ece32271b833/1
[41] Dong, L., Kang, Y., 2022. Cultural differences in mindset beliefs regarding mathematics learning. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 46, 101159.
[42] Hernandez, A., 2022. Closing the achievement gap in the classroom through culturally relevant pedagogy. Journal of Education and Learning. 11(2), 1–21.
[43] Gravemeijer, K., 2024. Mathematics and STEM, Preparing Students for Their Future. In: Li, Y., Zeng, Z., Song, N. (Eds.). Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Education in STEM. Springer: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 13–31.
[44] Perry, L.B., Mcconney, A., 2010. Does the SES of the School Matter? An Examination of Socioeconomic Status and Student Achievement Using PISA 2003. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education. 112(4), 1137–1162.
[45] Pajares, F., 2005. Gender differences in mathematics self-efficacy beliefs. In: Gallagher, A.M., Kaufman, J.C. (Eds.), Gender Differences in Mathematics: An Integrative Psychological Approach. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK. pp. 294–315.
[46] Wang, M.-T., Degol, J.L., 2017. Gender Gap in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM): Current Knowledge, Implications for Practice, Policy, and Future Directions. Educational Psychology Review. 29(1), 119–140.
[47] Kline, R.B., 2016. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. Guilford Publications: New York, NY, USA.
[48] Jongile, S., Ivala, E., 2023. A Theory-Driven Learning Analytic Model for Detecting Students at Risk in Higher Education. Ubiquitous Learning. 17(2), 1–17.
[49] Cheung, G.W., Cooper-Thomas, H.D., Lau, R.S., et al., 2024. Reporting reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with structural equation modeling: A review and best-practice recommendations. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. 41, 745–783.
[50] Gokmen, S., Dagalp, R., Kilickaplan, S., 2022. Multicollinearity in measurement error models. Communications in Statistics—Theory and Methods. 51(2), 474–485.
[51] Vosniadou, S., Darmawan, I., Lawson, M.J., et al., 2021. Beliefs about the self-regulation of learning predict cognitive and metacognitive strategies and academic performance in pre-service teachers. Metacognition and Learning. 16(3), 523–554.
[52] Miao, R., Bozionelos, N., Zhou, W., et al., 2022. High-performance work systems and key employee attitudes: The roles of psychological capital and an interactional justice climate. In: Takeuchi, R., Gong, Y., Boon, C., et al. (Eds.). Strategic Human Resource Management and Organizational Effectiveness: Essays Celebrating and Advancing the Scholarship of David P. Lepak (1971–2017). Routledge: London, UK. pp. 219–253.
[53] Ni, Y., Zhou, D.-H.R., Cai, J., et al., 2018. Improving cognitive and affective learning outcomes of students through mathematics instructional tasks of high cognitive demand. The Journal of Educational Research. 111(6), 704–719.
[54] Ravet, J., Mtika, P., 2024. Educational inclusion in resource-constrained contexts: A study of rural primary schools in Cambodia. International Journal of Inclusive Education. 28(1), 16–37.
[55] Howe, C., Hennessy, S., Mercer, N., et al., 2021. Teacher–student dialogue during mathematics lessons: A systematic review. Educational Research Review. 33, 100390.
[56] Andriyati, N., Amin, A., Li, Y., 2025. Voices from the classroom: Perceptions and obstacles in Indonesian curriculum reform. Oxford Review of Education. 1–20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2025.2539397
[57] King, R.B., McInerney, D.M., 2014. Culture’s Consequences on Student Motivation: Capturing Cross-Cultural Universality and Variability through Personal Investment Theory. Educational Psychologist. 49(3), 175–198.
[58] Hallinger, P., Heck, R.H., 2022. Collaborative leadership and school improvement: A systematic review of the evidence. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. 50(2), 237–260.
[59] Ho, L.H., 2024. Implementing Education Reforms: A Multiple Case Study of Vietnamese Primary Schools [PhD Thesis]. University of Glasgow: Glasgow, UK. Available from: https://theses.gla.ac.uk/84275/
[60] Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, 2025. Strategic Plan for Teacher Education Reform 2024–2030. Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, Kingdom of Cambodia: Phnom Penh, Kingdom of Cambodia. Available from: https://nepcambodia.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/81b52a3f-7ac3-4406-a048-632ddce4b4a9.pdf
PDF